Definition: The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like at a party.
Researcher: Colin Cherry, who studied how people can isolate one voice amidst many.
Significance: Highlights the selective nature of auditory attention and how we filter out irrelevant sounds.
Theories of Selective Attention
Bottleneck Theory
Explanation: Suggests there is a point where information processing is limited, similar to a bottleneck in a physical passage. Only certain information can pass through for further processing.
Importance: Helps in understanding how we manage to focus in environments filled with distractions.
Filter Theory
Explanation: Proposes that attention acts as a filter, allowing certain stimuli to be processed while ignoring others. This can occur at various stages of perception.
Relation to Bottleneck: Bottleneck theory can be seen as a specific application of filter theory, focusing on the limitations in processing capacity.
Factors Influencing Attention
Anxiety
Impact: High anxiety levels can hinder attention by causing distractions and impairing cognitive functions.
Arousal
Explanation: Refers to the state of being physiologically alert. Both low and high arousal can negatively affect attention, while moderate arousal tends to enhance focus.
Skill & Task Difficulty
Role: The complexity of a task and the individual’s proficiency can significantly affect attention. Familiar tasks require less cognitive load, allowing for better focus.
Michael Posner’s Attentional System
Concept: Posner suggests that attention is not confined to one specific area of the brain or the whole brain but involves multiple areas working together.
Relevance: This view supports a more dynamic understanding of attention, highlighting the interplay between different brain regions.
Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Attention
Bottom-Up Attention
Definition: Attention driven by external stimuli based on their physical characteristics (e.g., bright colors, loud sounds).
Example: A sudden noise that captures your focus without conscious effort.
Top-Down Attention
Definition: Attention guided by prior knowledge, expectations, or goals. This type is more deliberate.
Example: Actively searching for a friend in a crowd based on your knowledge of their appearance.
Covert Attention
Definition: Focusing attention on a stimulus without any physical movement (like eye movements).
Application: Useful in scenarios where one wants to gather information discreetly or without drawing attention to oneself.
Modal Model of Memory
Proposers: Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.
Overview: A framework explaining how information flows through memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporary storage of information, limited in duration and capacity.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): More permanent storage for information that can last from minutes to a lifetime.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Concept Originator: Alan Baddeley.
Description: Refers to the capacity to hold a small amount of information for a brief period. Baddeley expanded the idea into “working memory,” which includes the manipulation of stored information.
Characteristics:
Limited capacity (commonly cited as 7 ± 2 items).
Information is easily lost unless actively maintained through rehearsal.
Chunking
Definition: A technique used in memory to group together elements that are strongly associated with one another, making them easier to remember.
Example: Grouping the digits of a phone number into segments (e.g., 123-456-7890) instead of remembering each digit individually.
Purpose: Enhances the capacity of memory by reducing the number of items to be remembered.
Cues and Priming
Cue
Definition: A stimulus that aids the retrieval of information from memory. Cues help trigger memories by providing context or association.
Prime
Definition: A stimulus presented before a target stimulus to prepare the brain for recognition. Priming can influence how we perceive and respond to subsequent stimuli.